The Relationship between Science and Religion - 814 Words

When one thinks of religion, Christianity may come to mind. And when one talks about science, Galileo’s name will most likely be mentioned. The relationship between science and religion has had a long complex history. Both strived to answer and explain the way the world and the universe came to exist and why it functions the way it does. However, one subject relies on the supernatural world while the other on the physical world. Christianity, Judaism and other Western religions played a major role in the development of science. Theologians helped determined what theories should be acceptable to the public and other scientist. The most memorable events in history are Galileo’s trial by the Inquisition and the controversy surrounding Darwin’s theory of evolution. Many great scientists were in fact devout in their religions and tried to accommodate religious faith and be flexible with their theories. At the same time, others tried to find a way to connect new discov eries to a divine plan. When the passages of the Bible, for example, were translated literally, it led to conflict between what was thought to be the divine truth and what was proven to be true. Has the religion really shaped the foundation of science or has science transformed what is now believed to be the difference between the supernatural and the natural? In Christianity, a sacred text known as the Bible tells of historical stories of greater meaning and was alleged written under divine inspiration. Its mainShow MoreRelatedRelationship Between Science And Religion Essay2131 Words   |  9 PagesThe relationship between science and religion as Western categories of thought has long been fraught with tension; academics suggest that the conflict between religion and science arose in the 17th century, as a result of the Galileo Affair, and continued into the 18th century Age of Enlightenment. Others, however, suggest that the dispute between the two systems of belief may even be t raced as far back as classical antiquity. Even today, it is clear that tensions endure between academics unableRead MoreThe Relationship Between Religion And Science1339 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout modern times, philosophers have debated the relationship between religion and science. For example, the question has been raised whether science and religion give the same kind of knowledge, thus competing with one another. The alternate view is that they give different kinds of knowledge, thereby complementing one another. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian scientist who addressed this issue. A bit later, the English philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) similarly discussed the kindsRead MoreThe Relationship Between Religion And Science907 Words   |  4 PagesThe relationship between religion and science is indubitably debated. Barbour describes four ways of viewing this relationship (conflict, independence, dialogue--religion explains what science cannot, and integration-- religion and science overlap). Gould presents a case in which religion and science are non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA), that the two entities teach different things and therefore do not conflict. The subject of this essay is Worrall, who says that religion and science does conflictRead MoreThe Relationship between Science and Religion755 Words   |  4 Pages　　The Relationship between Science and Religion 　　The relationship between science and religion will be analyzed in the following three aspects: conflict, compartmentalization and complementariness. 　　Conflict 　　An essential question on our own existence is bound to evoke our curiosity: where did we come from? Charles Darwin, in his theory of evolution, believed that human being was evolved from apes. However, the Genesis in Bible considered that human was created by God. Undoubtedly, it is impossibleRead MoreRelationship Between Science And Religion950 Words   |  4 PagesWithin philosophy, there has long been a question about the relationship between science and religion. These two systems of human experience have undoubtedly had a lot of influence in the course of mankind’s development. The philosopher Ian Barbour created a taxonomy regarding science and religion that has become widely influential. His taxonomy postulates that there are four ways in which science and religion are thought to interact. The four categories are: conflict, independence, dialogue, andRead MoreRelationship Between Science And Religion901 Words   |  4 Pagesstudy of consciousness bring s an interesting twist into the relationship between science and religion. Humans standalone from all other creatures because we are conscious, this indicates to some people that there has to be a higher power. When studying the evolution of humans, we find that we are so much more advanced than any other known creature on the planet. This article attempts to explain the relationship between science and religion and the few unexplained things in the universe that prove thereRead MoreThe Relationship Between Religion And Science1056 Words   |  5 Pages100 October 4, 2014 Western Individualism What is the relationship between religion and science? In his book, Consilience, Edward O. Wilson aims to find a unified theory of knowledge. Consilence also seeks to show how science is superior to and can replace religion. In this paper, I intend to show how Wilson understands this relationship and science as well as how. as well as show John Stuart Mill would agree or disagree with Wilson. Science â€Å"aims to save the spirit, not by surrender but by theRead MoreRelationship Between Science And Religion1159 Words   |  5 PagesThe relationship between the philosophies of science and religion has long been a contentious topic in both popular and scholastic discourse. While some individuals engaging in this debate suggest that the relationship between the two disciplines is one of direct opposition, others propose that the two disciplines are in fact compatible or too dissimilar to be in conflict. While this debate raged, certain academics attempted to find a way to solve the apparent conflict between science and religionRead MoreRelationship Between Science And Religion3252 Words   |  14 Pageshe relationship between science and religion is a very interesting and complex one, and has changed quite a lot over the course of human history. In order to competently understand this relationship, it is necessary to have a rudimentary knowledge of the fundamental method s and aims of each discipline. Though the relationship between science and religion has changed a lot over time, what has not changed is the fact that the two disciplines are diametrically opposed to each other in many ways, havingRead MoreRelationship Between Science And Religion1481 Words   |  6 Pagesmethod of inductive logic. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) allowed science and theology to each have their own sovereign realm. Conflicting ideas between science and religion began to develop during the nineteenth century. During the twentieth century people began to believe that all human knowledge was scientific knowledge. Research either proved or disproved theories of the earth’s origin. People began to question the supremacy of science on the basis of the very premises that brought it to power,

Morals in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown and King’s...

Morals are set standards of right and wrong for society as a whole. One ’s self image of morals are what the individual thinks is right and wrong according to what he or she learns; however, this â€Å"Internal compass† can be influenced because society controls most of what they learn. One’s self image of morals allows an individual to provide compelling arguments, provides emotional stability and allows for an individual to have predetermined views of right and wrong; on account of the fact that said individuals choose to follow the revolutionary figures who provide a strong base for the creation of one’s self image of morals. In most cases, religion plays a major role in the creation of this aspect of identity; made evident in Martin Luther†¦show more content†¦This debate showed me the power that self morals provide in terms of an â€Å"emotional anchor† meaning that an individual can believe in their morals to the point that they will not be swayed by others with differing views. My aunt also showed me that when someone has truly formed their self image of morals, they will not change their views for any reason and can remain emotionally stable even when faced with adverse conditions. Another example is when Dr. King was labeled an extremist. When an individual is labeled as an extremist, he or she seen as a threat, people will turn against that individual and he or she will be alienated and ridiculed. At first, he admits he was disappointed that he was labeled as an extremist but then he goes on to say, â€Å"†¦I gradually gained a measure of satisfaction from the label. Was not Jesus an extremist for love†¦?† (Jail 31). Dr. King did not balk at being considered an extremist; he remained calm, beginning to take pleasure in this label for he was able to compare himself as an extremist for equal rights to Jesus who was an â€Å"extremists for love.† As such, Dr. King was content to remain in jail because he knew that he was emulating another revolutionary figure that he believed had the highest standard of self morals. Goodman Brown had a different kind of emotional stability after he had caught sight of his wife at the unholy ceremony.

Evaluating The Development Characteristics Of Preschool...

For my classroom plan, I chose to discuss a preschool room. I will talk about what I think Piaget’s stage theory is in my words. I will also identify and describe the development characteristics of preschool children. I will create a layout of a preschool classroom, and I will create an activity that goes with each development. Piaget’s stage theory is that children learn in stages (Lefrancois, 2012). Piaget states that children’s learning and growth are gradual. In the pre-school age children have moved pasted the infancy stage and are in beginning the middle part of the preoperational stage (Lefrancois, 2012). In this stage of learning thought is egocentric and dominated by perspective of the child. Children want to do want benefits them the most and are not aware of how this can affect others around them. By the time the children are in preschool at the 3 and 4 years, they do have some concept of this, and have learned how to share, that they can hurt another child’s feelings, and that they need to be safe. The children still need reinforcement and to work on being aware of others by this age, but there is some concept of it. The other stages are the sensorimotor stage from 0-2. In this stage children are relying on their senses and reflexes. They are not aware of higher tho ught and are rapidly learning physical skills, such as talking, crawling, walking, and do not begin to become aware of wanting for themselves, becoming independent, or others until the secondShow MoreRelatedThe Preschool Kids Learning Values, Skills, And Knowledge1706 Words   |  7 PagesSocial development encompasses the involvement of the children, in this case, the preschool kids learning values, skills, and knowledge, with the sole purpose of enabling them to effectively relate to their peers, others, and the community as a whole. The social learning activity can be passed to children directly by their caretakers or even indirectly through an adorable relationship with the family and friends. Children participation in the culture around them can also impact social development knowledgeRead MoreChildhood Apraxia Of Speech : A Motor Speech Disorder1715 Words   |  7 Pagesthe last few years, and children undergoing evaluations at an earlier age who are now being identified. CA S may have always been present in these numbers but undiagnosed or identified. An additional concern and consideration in identifying CAS is the concern that due to increases in awareness CAS may be over-diagnosed and inflate the numbers of individuals diagnosed with CAS. Childhood Apraxia of Speech is difficult to diagnose. The main areas to focus on when evaluating and diagnosing this disorderRead MoreThe Autism Screening Instrument For Educational Planning1400 Words   |  6 PagesWhen diagnosing autism spectrum disorder, it is crucial for the professional evaluating the child to know about the disorder. This is why speech-language pathologists normally play a part in the diagnosis. Other members of the team may include occupational therapists, physical therapists, pediatricians, and neurologists. Since problems with communication and social skills are early symptoms of this disorder, SLPs play a main role in the diagnosis and should be consulted early in the evaluationRead MoreWhat Should Be The Focus Of American Public Schools886 Words   |  4 Pages(NCLB) holds all elementary schools, regardless of student characteristics, accountable for achieving proficient student scores in reading and math. By demanding that schools report achievement f or racial, ethnic, and economic subgroups, the accountability system aims to shine a light on schools that â€Å"leave children behind.† Public Schools in America for a long time were regarded as the best public schools in the world, but with the development of Asian and European schools American schools are not rankedRead MorePresident Lyndon B. Johnson Declared A War On Poverty1219 Words   |  5 Pagescomprehensive effort to address the needs of the nation, nearly half of whom were children. The war moved from concept to reality when the Economic Opportunity Act was passed by Congress in August 1964. The establishment of the Head Start preschool was authorized under the Economic Opportunity Act. In the summer of 1965, Project Head Start first launched as an eight-week program which had more than a half a million children nationwide enrolled. After much success, the program was implemented as a full-oneRead MoreLifespan Development945 Words   |  4 Pages* Lifespan development is the field tha examine pattern of growth, change, and stability in behavior. (womb to tomb) * Major topical Areas (Physical Dev., Cognitive Dev., Personality Dev., Social Dev.) * Physical- Body and the brain. * Cognitive- Growth and behavior * Personality- Stability and change * Social- interaction and relationships grow * Cultural factors and developmental diversity * Broad factors * Orientation toward individualism orRead MorePreschool Programs And The Universal Preschool2914 Words   |  12 PagesPreschool programs are designed specifically to make sure that children are ready for kindergarten and will be able to succeed in school by third grade. All preschool programs have three characteristics in common. They are governed by high program standards, are open to 3 and 4 year–olds, and focus on school readiness. The term universal preschool means that preschool programs are available to any child in a given state, regardless of family income, children’s abilities, or any other factors (Colker)Read MoreHigh Quality Early Childhood Education2099 Words   |  9 PagesSocio-Emotional Development Definition There are no federal standards for early childhood education programs, leaving each state to create their own and leaving a wide range of variance between programs and states in terms of requirements (Magnuson Waldfogel, 2005). High quality early childhood education can be defined using the following benchmarks that were set by the National Institute of Early Education Research (NIEER) and described by Barnett Frede (2010). The first four benchmarks areRead MoreApplication Essay: Applying for Specialist Program in School Psychology932 Words   |  4 Pagesin our lives we have to make changes. I am determined to invest my energy and time to productive and tangible outcomes such as my education. My first experience working with children affected by autism was in an inclusion school program. This inspired my interest in working with developmentally challenged children. I walked in the facility and my abilities just came naturally to me. The passion to make contributions in the world of Pervasive Developmental Disorders continues to amplify. TheRead MoreNew Approach to Education System1742 Words   |  7 Pagesmentally disabled children. After a while she developed her method to apply for normal children. Her teaching method is focused on promoting self-awareness and self-sufficiency for children. Thanks to these acts, lots of students and teachers have become more successful and happy. In today’s world, Montessori Method is used formally by lots of schools in some countries rather than traditional educational system. Montessori education mainly focuses on children’s personal development, rather than exams

Consumer Behavior The Role of the Television

Question: Does a viewer's level of involvement with the reality-based tv program - the degree of interactivity with the show (i.e having the option of voting for or against contestants) - impact their perceptions of the show? Answer: The role of the television is to render the information which influences the values, norms and behaviors. It is the television that highlighted the notion of the role models which influence the decision of ones lives. The reality television shows have become a thriving issue around the world. The perception of the human beings in this connection is crucial. Perception is defined as the process through which an individual acquires, chooses and construes stimuli to create a meaningful and articulate picture of the world. Through the perception the audiences are able to construct brand relationship. (Lichfield and Harrison 2011) In this regard the selective perception deals in the subconscious selection of the stimuli which people will acquire. This is influenced by three factors which is the nature of the stimulus, the prior experience of the audience and the motives of the audience at the time. As far as the question is concerned the nature of the stimulus itself affects the perception of the viewers. The degree of interactivity with the reality show is analyzed through the contact, sensation and perception creation with the show. The interactivity increases when the viewers are connecting with the show through the online voting. The involvement is segmented through the degree of interactivity. (Bickley 2012) The involvement is a phenomenon which drives the development of attitudes. According to the involvement theory, the individuals derive the level of involvement with the product. Another theory of judgment states that the process of formation of information is dependent on the involvement of the audience with the different shows. In this regard, the memory of the individuals plays an important role in recognizing the impact of the reality shows on the individuals. The memory is influenced by the level of involvement with the television shows. (Wikstrm 2009) The level of involvement can be grouped into three categories which are high, medium and low levels. The high involvement is signified when the viewers have high contact and perception about the reality shows, as in this case, the voting process on the reality shows. The perception is build only when there is involvement, interaction and the memory of the viewers. Through the interactive sessions between the viewers and the reality shows is very crucial in building the perception of the show. The involvement theory and the judgment theory help to explain the perception of the viewers. The high involvement with the reality show impacts the perception. The more the contact with the reality show, the more is the involvement and the more is the perception about the show. The involvement with the show also means that the viewers are frequently view the show so the connection is established. The judgment theory help create perception about the show which is acquired on frequent viewing and involvement with the show. The main proponent of the perception is the involvement. Interaction or the degree of interactivity is also crucial in the perception building with the reality shows. Thu, it can be well said that the involvement along with the different degrees of involvement influence the perception about the shows. Also the degree of interactivity also impacts the perception about the TV based reality programs. (Cohen and Weimann 2008) Reference Bickley, Gillian. 2012. Perceptions. Hong Kong: Proverse Hong Kong. Cohen, J., and G. Weimann. 2008. 'Who's Afraid Of Reality Shows?: Exploring The Effects Of Perceived Influence Of Reality Shows And The Concern Over Their Social Effects On Willingness To Censor'. Communication Research 35 (3): 382-397. doi:10.1177/0093650208315964. Lichfield, Patrick, and Martin Harrison. 2011. Perceptions. London: Quadrille. Wikstrm, Per-Olof H. 2009. 'Questions Of Perception And Reality'. The British Journal Of Sociology 60 (1): 59-63. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2008.01216.x.

Weinberg Center for Corporate Governance

Question: Discuss about the Weinberg Center for Corporate Governance. Answer: Introduction: Organization governance widely refers to the mechanisms and procedures with the useful resource of which an organization is directed and managed; entails harmonizing several pursuits of the stakeholders of an organization. According to Gupta (2017), the Board of Directors exerts enterprise authority for every employee of the business organization, which incorporates the Chief Executive Officer, and can be dismissed by the board at any time. Each different definition by Dan (2017) is that agency governance is the gadget of guidelines, practices and strategies with the aid of which an employer is directed and controlled. Considering corporate governance additionally gives the framework for engaging in an enterprise's dreams, it encompasses almost every sphere of management, from action plans and inner controls to normal overall performance measurement and employer disclosure. The board is tasked with making essential alternatives, at the side of organization officer appointments, govt. compensation and dividend coverage. A manger wants to ensure that his/her commercial enterprise adheres to all of the regulations of the employer governance so that the entirety is legit. In some occurrences, board commitments enlarge beyond money-associated enhancement, whilst shareholder resolutions require sure social or financial issues to be organized. The pinnacle managerial workforce is the vital direct partner affecting corporate governance. Businesses that do not collaborate competently with inspectors or do no longer pick reviewers with an appropriate scale can distribute spurious or rebellious cash related effects. Managing and Governing Effectively The company governance structures consist of unequivocal and positive agreements among the business enterprise and the partners for dissemination of obligations, rights, and rewards. The technique for accommodating clashing interests of companions according to their obligations, benefits, and parts, and methodology for legitimate supervision, management, and record-streams to fill in as an arrangement of balanced governance. Corporate governance become a trouble that is begging to be addressed after the 2002 presentation of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act within the US jurisdiction, which was introduced to reestablish open trust in companies and markets in the wake of bookkeeping misrepresentation that bankrupted distinguished groups, for example, WorldCom and Enron within the US (Smith 2017). The shape of principles and practices in an agency is the area a managerial group guarantees decency, responsibility, notwithstanding straightforwardness in an organizations affiliation with partners (clients, creditors, workers, management, and the consumer groups, along with authorities). The pinnacle managerial workforce applies company governance over all employees of the organization, together with the Managing Director, and might terminate any of them on any occasion (John, 2017). Theories and Philosophies of Corporate Governance and Agency Theory A great part of the examination into corporate governance gets from agency theory. Since the early work of Shailer (2014), corporate governance has centered upon the detachment of possession and pedals which brings about vital operator issues emerging from the scattered proprietorship in the present day company. He viewed corporate governance as a component where a directorate is an essential monitoring tool to limit the issues realized by the principal-agent association. In this specific situation, specialists are the supervisors, principals are the proprietors and the sheets of executives go about as the checking system. Besides, writing on corporate governance credits two elements to agency theory. The principal variable is that companies are lessened to two members, supervisors and shareholders whose interests are thought to be both clear and reliable. A moment thought is that people are self-intrigued and reluctant to give up their own advantages for the interests of the others. The fundamental papers of Greg (2011) portray the firm as a nexus of agreements among individual components of generation bringing about the rise of the agency theory. The firm is not an individual but rather a legitimate and lawful fiction, where clashing goals of people are brought into harmony inside a structure of authoritative connections. These legally binding connections are with representatives, as well as with providers, clients and loan bosses. The expectation of these agreements is that every one of the gatherings acting to their greatest advantage are persuaded to boost the estimation of the association, decreasing the agency costs and embracing bookkeeping techniques that most proficiently mirror their own particular execution. Management of risks is the manner of distinguishing, controlling and evaluating risks to an affiliation's resources and income. Those risks might originate from various sources, including economic volatility, legal responsibility, and major errors in management, mishaps as well as catastrophic activities. Stockbrokers utilize budgetary instruments as alternatives and fates, and cash chiefs utilize methodologies like portfolio and speculation enhancement, to relieve or successfully oversee chance. Thus, a threat administration arrange steadily consists of businesses' methods for recognizing and controlling risks to its advanced assets, consisting of restrictive corporate facts, a patron's by using and via identifiable statistics and guarded innovation. In spite of the fact that ISO 31000 cannot be utilized for accreditation purposes, it can help give direction to inner or outer hazard review, and it permits associations to contrast their hazard administration rehearses and the universally perceived benchmarks. Risk management occurs at any time a monetary professional or shop administrator investigates and endeavors to assess the potential for misfortunes in a challenge and later on makes the proper move (or inaction) given his hypothesis dreams and hazard resistance (Shailer, 2014). For many shareholders, it is not always enough for a corporation to be honestly profitable; it moreover wants to illustrate terrific corporate citizenship through environmental reputation, moral behavior and sound corporate governance practices. Proper company governance creates an obvious set of policies and controls in which shareholders, directors and officials have aligned incentives. Awful company governance can cast doubt on an enterprise enterprise's reliability, and integrity or obligation to shareholders. Organization governance includes balancing the needs of an employers many stakeholders collectively, including shareholders, clients, providers, financiers, government and the community. Tolerance or help of illegal practices can create scandals just like the one, which rocked Volkswagen in 2014 (Investopedia Staff, 2017). Inside the cash associated world, management of risk and corporate management is the manner of popularity, assessment and acknowledgment or alleviation of vulnerability in challenging selections. Risk management takes place anywhere within the budgetary world. It takes place when a monetary professional purchases commonly safe government securities over extra volatile corporate securities, and while a bank plays out a credit score aware of a person before issuing credit extension to an individual. References Dan P. (2017). What are the five Risk Management Process Steps? Retrieved on March 26, 2017, from https://continuingprofessionaldevelopment.org/risk-management-steps-in-risk- management-process/ Greg B. (2011) The Corporate Governance of Iconic Executives, Notre Dame Law Review 351, available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2040922 Gupta K. (2017). What is corporate governance? Definition and meaning, Retrieved on March 26, 2017, from https://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/corporate-governance.html Investopedia Staff. (2017). Corporate Governance Definition | Investopedia, Retrieved on March 26, 2017, from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corporategovernance.asp Investopedia Staff. (2017). Risk Management Definition | Investopedia, Retrieved on March 26, 2017, from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/riskmanagement.asp/ John L. (2017). John L. Weinberg Center for Corporate Governance | Lerner, Retrieved on March 26, 2017, from https://lerner.udel.edu/centers/research-centers/john-l-weinberg- center-for-corporate-governance/ Lee, Janet Shailer, G. (2010) The Effect of Board-Related Reforms on Investors Confidence. Australian Accounting Review, 18(45) Shailer, G. (2014) An Introduction to Corporate Governance in Australia, Pearson Education Australia, Sydney Smith A. (2017). What is risk management? Retrieved on March 26, 2017, from https://searchcompliance.techtarget.com/definition/risk-management Tricker A. (2013) Essentials for Board Directors: AZ Guide, Bloomberg Pr

How Revolutionary Was the American Revolution Sample Essay?

How Revolutionary Was the American Revolution Sample Essay?In reading one of these how revolutionary was the American Revolution sample essays, it's easy to see that the authors had no idea what they were doing. It's impossible for a student to learn the proper writing and format with this lesson. The way it is presented is laughable and it really comes across as an amateur effort.When this particular course comes across as so easy to understand and you have learned the language by doing the lesson, you will realize that you are doing some serious damage to your learning abilities. While the teacher might be a seasoned veteran, you really have to question why they're teaching this to anyone. While I've worked with many teachers who have made excellent changes to how they teach, I am beginning to question if this particular writer could have done the same thing.The way in which this resource is being presented is outrageous and unbelievable. You can get an idea of how they present the revolutionary times by reading the date on the cover of the book. It appears that the date on the book should read May 10, 1776. If that was the time of the American Revolution, that would be too old.The way in which the book presents how revolutionary was the American Revolution is also very unfortunate. You will note that there is no timeline style assignment within the textbook.Revolutionary times are an important part of history and for the teachers who teach students, they need to learn how to write appropriately about it. They need to get it right. This can be done by making sure that the writer uses correct grammar and correct spellings. They need to know that the proper usage of adjectives and adverbs are important in the proper rendering of the American revolution.It's almost as if they took a few seconds to look up how to properly write a revolutionary essay, only to come up with a severely understated task. It's amazing how that ever happened.If you are teaching a class about the American revolution or you are teaching an advanced class, I would highly recommend not using this resource to teach the revolutionary essay. There are better resources available. The book is extremely bad and it really comes across as a failure when you examine it.

Accreditation in Higher Education free essay sample

Accreditation is one of the most complex and confusing issues in higher education. It is also one of the most misused concepts – both intentionally and unintentionally. In its simplest sense, accreditation means validation – a statement by a group of persons who are at least theoretically impartial experts in higher education that a given school or department within a school has been thoroughly investigated and found to be worthy of approval. The process of accreditation is however a voluntary process which means that no school is required to be accredited. Also accreditation is not a government process as the accrediting agencies are, at least in United States, private agencies and are independent organizations. As mentioned, this is a peculiarly American process. In every other country in the world, the government either operates the colleges and universities or directly gives them the right to grant degrees, so an independent agency does not need to say that a given school is okay. We will write a custom essay sample on Accreditation in Higher Education or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Coming back to United States, there are hundreds of accrediting agencies, some of which are generally recognized as legitimate while others are not. Also as mentioned earlier there is no need for a school to be accredited. In fact there are a small number of acceptable schools and sometimes departments within schools that are not accredited either by their own choice (since accreditation is a voluntary and often expensive procedure) or because they are too new (all schools were unaccredited at one time) or too experimental (some would say too innovative) for the generally conservative accreditors. On the other hand, there are also a few less-than-wonderful schools that are legitimately accredited, though it is extremely rare. A much common scenario is where many bad schools claim to be accredited – but such accreditation is always by unrecognized, sometimes nonexistent, accrediting associations, often of their own creation.Accreditation is a controversial topic in higher education. In fact the last two US secretaries of education stated in no uncertain terms that the accrediting agencies are not doing their jobs, especially with respect to nontraditional schools such as some of the distance-learning agencies. As will also be discussed in the later sections of this report, having accreditation is not the same thing as being licensed, chartered, approved, authorized or recognized.Introduction to AccreditationAccreditation is a process of external quality review used by higher education to scrutinize colleges, universities, and higher education programs for quality assuran ce and quality improvement (Forest, Kinser, p. 29). It is basically a process by which a program or institution is recognized as being in conformity with some formal written agreed upon standard. Another definition of accreditation is â€Å"a process by which an institution of postsecondary education evaluates its educational activities, in who or in part, and seeks and independent judgment to confirm that it is substantially achieving its objectives and is generally equal in quality to comparable institutions of post secondary education† (Bogue, Hall, 2003, p. 22).According to American Psychological Association APA, the accreditation process of is â€Å"a process that involves judging the degree to which a program has achieved the goals and objectives†. The Oxford English Dictionary defines accreditation as â€Å"the act or process of giving official authorization†. It is noteworthy that the definitions do not refer the level of performance of an individual or an organization. It ironically means that, accredita tion could be applied to an organization whose level of performance is inadequate. Although every state and nation accredits schools and professional programs and publishes lists of approved, certified, recognized or registered institutions, the term accreditation more frequently refers to approval association and accrediting agencies rather than to state approval (Williams cited in Drake, 2003, p. 64).The accreditation process is one in which, according to Council for Higher Education Accreditation CHEA,   ccreditation is â€Å"the faculty, administrators, and staff of the institution or academic program conduct a self-study using the accrediting association’s set of expectations about quality as their guide. A team of peers (from within the higher education system that are) selected by the accrediting association reviews the evidence, visits the campus to interview faculty and staff, and writes a report of its assessment† (Asher, 2000, p. 254).An institution or program seeking accreditation must go through a number of steps stipulated by an accred iting organization. These steps involve a combination of preparation of evidence of accomplishment by the institution or program, scrutiny of these materials by faculty and administrative peers, action to determine the accreditation status by the accrediting organizations. Of the several beneficial purposes of accreditation, the two considered to be most fundamental are to ensure the quality and to assist in the improvement of the institution or program. Specifically, the accreditation of an institution or program says to the public in general and to institutional constituencies in particular that is has appropriate mission and purposes, resources necessary to achieve those purposes, and a history and record implying that it will continue to achieve, and a history and record implying that it will continue to achieve its purposes. The needs of several constituencies are served when accreditation fulfills its purposes of quality assurance and institutional or program improvement. The general public is served by being assured that the institution or program has been evaluated internally and externally and conforms to general expectations in higher education.Accreditation benefits students in several wyas. It assures them that an accredited institution has been found to be satisfactory and capable of meeting their needs, facilitates the transfer of credits among institutions, promotes admission to graduate degree programs and serves as a prerequisite, in some cases for entering professions. Institutions also benefit from accreditation. There is first the stimulus for periodic self-evaluation and continuous improvement. Accreditation enables institutions to gain eligibility for themselves and their students in certain programs of governments and private aid to higher education and helps institutions to prevent parochialism by setting expectations that are national in scope. Yet another benefit is the enhanced reputation of an accredited institution, primarily because of the generally high public regard for accreditation (Bogue, Hall, 2003, p. 23).Accreditation of institutions and programs is ongoing: Initial accreditation is not a guarantee of indefinite accredited status. Periodic review is a fact of life for accredited institutions and programs. Self-accreditation is not an option (Forest, Kinser, 2002, p. 30). The public benefits when it can be assured that the accredited institution is ongoing and explicit activities deemed adequate to enable the institution to improve itself continuously and to made necessary modifications to accommodate changes in knowledge and practice in various fields of study. Accreditation decreases the need for intervention by regulatory agencies because institutions are themselves required to provide for the maintenance of quality (Bogue, Hall, 2003, p. 23).Accreditation is based on the evaluation of institutional or program performance against a set of minimal standards. There may be, therefore an understandable variation among accredited institutions. However, without accreditation, the degree of variation would be much greater, and the public’s ability to discern the differences between the institutions of adequate quality and those of inadequate quality would be seriously damaged. Without accreditation, the vagaries of reputational studies also would be greatly exacerbated (Bogue, Hall, 2003, p. 23-24).Usually accreditation and quality assurance in various countries is typically carried out by the government. An exception to this case is United States, where accreditation is carried out by private in-profit organizations designed for this specific purpose. External quality review of higher quality education is a non-governmental exercise in United States.The word accreditation is often and incorrectly used interchangeably with certification and licensure. Whereas accreditation is a status ascribed to an institution or one of its parts, certification usually applies to an individual or connotes a process that determines that he or she has fulfilled requirements set forth in a particular line of work and may practice in that field of work (Bogue, hall, 2003, p. 22). Licensure is also a term applicable to an individual rather than an institution. Often related and sometime slinked to both accreditation and certification, licensure is the process by which an individual is granted the authority to practice in a particular field. It runs the gamut from vehicle operation to brain surgery, from barbering to flying jumbo jets.Generally Accepted Accreditation PrinciplesGAAP is basically an accounting concept i.e. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. These principles are generally accepted: not absolutely, not always, not universally, but generally. The same concept makes as much sense in the world of accreditation: GAAP – Generally Accepted Accreditation Principles. The term was first used informally at the national convention of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers AACRAO in Reno.In United States, the relevant key decision makers – especially university registrars, admissions officers, corporate human resource officers, and governmental agencies are in near-unanimous agreement. Not everyone calls the concept of GAAP, but the idea is the same: is a school meets certain criteria, its credits or degrees will probably be accepted; if not, they probably won’t be. Following are criteria for GAAP in some countries (Bear, Bear, 2003, p. 15):Ø   For schools based in the United States: accreditation by an accrediting agency recognized by the US Department of Education and/or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation CHEA. Ø   For schools in Great Britain and the British Commonwealth: membership in the Association of Commonwealth Universities and a listing in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.Ø   For schools in Australia: recognition by the Australian Qualification Framework.Ø   For schools in other countries: a description in the World Education Series (published by Projects in International Education Research PIER, a joint venture of AACRAO and NAFSA, the Association of International Educators, with the participation of the College Board); or a listing in the Countries Series, published by the Australian National Office for Overseas Skills Recognition, NOOSR.Goals and objectives of accreditationAccreditation has the following five key features according to Forest and Kinser (2002, p.2002, p. 30-31):Self-study: Institutions and programs prepare a written summary of performance based on accrediting organizations’ standardsPeer review: Accreditation review is conducted by facu lty and administrative peers in the profession. These colleagues review the self-study and serve on visiting teams that review institutions and programs after the self-study is accomplished. Peers make up the majority of members of the accrediting commissions of the accrediting commissions or boards that make judgments about accrediting status.Site visit: Accrediting organizations normally send a visiting team to review an institution or program. The self-study provides he foundations of the team visit. In addition to the peers described above, teams may include public members i.e. non-academics who have an interest in higher education. All team members are volunteers and are generally not compensated. Action or judgment by the accrediting organization: Accrediting organizations have commissions that affirm accreditation for new institutions and programs, reaffirm accreditation for ongoing institutions and programs, and deny accreditation to institutions and programs.Ongoing external review: Institutions and programs continue to be reviewed periodically on cycles that range from a few years to as much as ten years long. They normally prepare a self-study and undergo a site visit each time.From the stand point of institutional governance, the accreditation process segmented responsibility. It has been criticized for emphasizing the interests of certain programs; for reinforcing the status quo by limiting deviation from conventional practice; for effectually requiring governing boards to spend funds for building, equipment, and staff when it specified faculty-student rations and minimum square footage program operation; and for having standards that tend to be quantitative rather tha n qualitative.However, the accreditation process has been higher education’s way of managing itself in the absence of the national ministry of education found in most other nations. And in peculiarly American fashion the federal agency most responsible for education accredited the accrediting groups; thus far and no further (Cohen, 1998, p. 250).